The Vatican

This subject will be treated under the following heads:

I. Introduction;

II. Architectural History of the Vatican Palace;

III. Description of the Palace;

IV. Description of the Gardens;

V. The Chapels of the Vatican;

VI. The Palace as a Place of Residence;

VII. The Palace as a Treasury of Art;

VIII. The Palace as a Scientific Institute;

IX. The State-Halls of the Vatican;

X. The State Staircases of the Vatican;

XI. The Administrative Boards of the Vatican;

XII. The Juridical and Hygienic Boards of the Vatican;

XIII. The Policing of the Vatican;

XIV. The Vatican as a Business Centre;

XV. The Tipografia Poliglotta Vaticana;

XVI. The Legal Position of the Vatican.

Inasmuch as by this disposition of the subject analogous things may be treated

together regardless of their various locations in the Palace, this has an advantage

over others which follow a topographical and historical method.

I. INTRODUCTION

The territory on the right bank of the Tiber between Monte Mario and Gianicolo

(Janiculum) was known to antiquity as the Ager Vaticanus, and, owing to its

marshy character, the low-lying portion of this district enjoyed an ill repute. The

origin of the name Vaticanus is uncertain; some claim that the name comes from

a vanished Etruscan town called Vaticum. This district did not belong to ancient

Rome, nor was it included within the city walls built by Emperor Aurelian. In the

imperial gardens situated in this section was the Circus of Nero. At the foot of

the Vatican Hill lay the ancient Basilica of St. Peter. By extensive purchases of

land the medieval acquired possession of the whole hill, thus preparing the way

for building activity. Communication with the city was established by the Pons

Ælius, which led directly to the mausoleum of Hadrian. Between 848 and 852

Leo IV surrounded the whole settlement with a wall, which included it within the

city boundaries. Until the pontificate of Sixtus V this section of Rome remained a

private papal possession and was entrusted to a special administration. Sixtus,

however, placed it under the jurisdiction of the urban authorities as the fourteenth

region.

II. ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY OF THE VATICAN PALACE

It is certain that Pope Symmachus (498-514) built a residence to the right and

left of St. Peter's and immediately contiguous to it. There was probably a former

residence, since, from the very beginning, the popes must have found a house of

accommodation necessary in the vicinity of so prominent a basilica as St.

Peter's. By the end of the thirteenth century the building activity of Eugene III,

Alexander III, and Innocent III had developed the residence of Symmachus into a

palatium which lay between the portico of St. Peter's and the Vatican Hill.

Nicholas III began building on the Vatican Hill a palace of extraordinary

dimensions, which was completed by his immediate successors. He also

secured land for the Vatican Gardens. The group of buildings then erected

correspond more or less with the ancient portions of the present palace which

extend around the Cortile del Maresciallo and the eastern, southern, and western

sides of the Cortile del Papagallo. These buildings were scarcely finished or fitted

when the popes moved to Avignon and from 1305 to 1377 no pope resided

permanently in the Vatican Palace. Urban V spent a short time in Rome, and

Gregory XI died there. When Urban V resolved to return to Rome, the Lateran

Palace having been destroyed by fire, the ordinary papal residence was fixed at

the Vatican. The apartments, roofs, gardens, and chapels of the Vatican Palace

had to be entirely overhauled, so grievous had been the decay and ruin into which

the buildings had fallen within sixty years (see Kirsch, "Die Rüchkehr der Päpste

Urban V. u. Gregor. XI.", Paderborn, 1908). The funds devoted to the repairs of

the Vatican during the residence at Avignon had been entirely inadequate.

Urban VI (1378) and his successors restored to the palace a degree of comfort

as a place of residence, so that, when Martin V came from Constance to Rome

(28 September, 1420), little remained to be undertaken except some

rearrangement of the apartments. Nicholas V (q.v.) erected buildings on the east

and north sides of the Cortile del Papagallo, on the spot where the Loggia of

Raphael and the Appartamento Borgia and the Stanze stand to-day. Alexander

added to the Palace of Nicholas V the Torre Borgia, which bears his name. Pius

II and Paul II beautified the buildings of the south aide, and Innocent VIII effected

such alterations in the old palace in the portico of St. Peter's at the foot of the hill

that it was henceforth known as the Palazzo di Innocenzo VIII. Directly south, in

the direction of Sant' Angelo, Nicholas V erected a mighty bastion (called the

Torrione di Niccolò V), running down from the summit of the hill to Sant' Angelo.

The space mounting the hill in a northerly direction was enclosed by a wall and

served as a garden (viridarium, vigna). At a distance of about 700 metres from

the palace, Innocent VIII erected a fairly large villa, which may be seen to-day,

and which was remodelled by Clement XIV and Pius VI into one of the most

stately portions of the museum of sculpture. Sixtus IV, who dwelt in the

apartments of the Cortile del Papagallo, made important alterations in the rooms

of the ground floor to accommodate there the Bibliotheca Palatina.

The wing to the south (Galleria delle inscrizioni and Museo Chiaramonti) was

built by Julius II; the northern wing (picture-gallery and library), by Pius IV. A little

later both wings were fully developed into their present form. The large Loggia (il

gran nicchione) near the villa of Innocent VIII was erected by Pius IV. Pius V

erected the apartments to the north of the Torre Borgia, and built the three

chapels, situated one over the other, in the western portion of the northern wing.

One of these chapels is attached to the library (that on the ground floor) and one

to the picture-gallery on the second floor. Pius V and his successor Gregory XIII

extended the palace by the construction of the wing running southwards to the

Torrione. The present papal palace was begun by Sixtus V and completed by his

successors, Urban VII, Innocent XI, and Clement VIII.

The buildings extending along the southern slope of the hill to Piazza S. Pietro,

occupied to-day by the maestro di camera and the majordomo, were erected by

Julius III, and completed under Pius IX with the construction of the magnificent

Scala Pia. The buildings branching off from the northern wing toward the gardens,

in the vicinity of the chapels of Pius V, were built by Paul V. Sixtus V

established connection between the two longitudinal wings of the palace by

erecting in the middle the Salone Sistino, in which he housed the library. A

second transverse building, constructed by Pius VII in the eastern court,

contains the Braccio Nuovo, one section of the museum of sculpture. All the

other museum buildings at the eastern end of the palace were erected or

remodelled by Pius VI and Pius VII. The casino constructed by Leo XIII on one of

the towers of Leo IV in the gardens now serves as the Vatican Observatory. This

broad sketch of the architectural history of the Vatican and the following

description of the various edifices will afford a fairly exact idea of the gradual

growth of this vast collection of buildings.

III. DESCRIPTION OF THE PALACE

The Vatican Palace is situated on the eastern sections of the Vatican Hill.

Behind it rises the summit of the hill with the gardens; at the highest points may

still be seen the only remains of the Leonine Wall with its two mighty towers. The

palace is approached by the road leading around St. Peter's and by the Scala

Pia, which extends from the Portone di Bronzo to the Court of St. Damasus. The

covered way which leads from the Cortile di Belvedere to the Cortile della

Sentinella and thence to the exit door situated at the back of the palace is used

only for official purposes. From the Portone di Bronzo downwards run the

powerful buttresses of the palace around the eastern and northern sides of the

hill as far as the Galleria Lapidaria (Corridoio delle Iscrizioni). These buttresses

are interrupted by the Torrione, which was formerly of great strategic importance

and now serves as a magazine. At the rear of the Cortile del Forno is the

entrance to the Nicchione and the museum buildings, which are the most

elevated portions of the palace.

From the cupola of St. Peter's may be seen the whole collection of buildings

included under the name of Vatican Palace, a long stretch of edifices with many

courts, ending in a row of smaller connected buildings before which stands a

great loggia, known as the Nicchione. To the right and left of the loggia and at

right angles to it are two narrow buildings, which are connected transversely by

the Braccio Nuovo at a distance of 328 feet from the loggia. These four buildings

enclose the Giardino della Pigna, so called because in the loggia stands a

gigantic pine-cone of bronze, preserved from old St. Peter's. Except the few

unsightly buildings lying immediately to the left, all the buildings behind the

loggia are given over to the museum -- especially to sculptures and to the

Egyptian and Etruscan museums. In the longitudinal wing to the left are

accommodated a portion of the library, the Galleria dei Candelabri, and Raphael's

tapestries; the right wing forms the Museo Chiaramonti, while the transverse

building, or Braccio Nuovo, also belongs to the museum of sculpture. After the

Giardino della Pigna succeeds the Cortile della Stamperia, a narrow building

deriving its name from the fact that it served as the seat of the Vatican Press

(founded by Sixtus V) until 1909. At the back of this court stands the Braccio

Nuovo; to the left lie the library, the Galleria delle Carte Geografiche, and the

Torre dei Quattro Venti; to the right the library and the Galleria Lapidaria; and in

the transverse building in front the Library. The third huge court, Cortile di

Belvedere, lies on a much lower level in an exact line with the other two. At the

rear and to the left is the library, to the right the Galleria Lapidaria, and in the

transverse wing in front the Appartemento Borgia, the Stanze of Raphael, and the

Museum of Modern Paintings.

Between these long stretches of the palaces with the three courts and the

Basilica of St. Peter lie a large number of courts, surrounded in a somewhat

irregular fashion by a group of buildings of which we shall mention the most

important. The Sistine Chapel to the extreme left adjoins the Cortile della

Sentinella, and the Cortile del Portoncino; opposite to this ends the left wing of

the library. To the right from the chapel is the Sala, Regia, beyond which,

extending towards St. Peter's, is the Cappella Paolina. Running somewhat

obliquely from the Sala Regia is the Sala Ducale, which, with the Stanze di

Raffaello and the Appartamento Borgia, encloses the Cortile del Papagallo on the

north and south sides. The eastern side of this court is bordered by the group of

buildings containing the Camere dei Paramenti (with the Loggie di Giovanni da

Udine extending in front) and the Cappella di Niccolo V (one story higher),

situated before which is the Loggie di Raffaello. The above-mentioned loggie form

the western side of the Cortile di San Damaso; the northern side is also

composed of loggie, behind which, on the second floor, is the Sala Matilde and

on the third a portion of the old picture-gallery. The eastern side of the loggie

stands in front of that portion of the palace occupied by the pope and the

secretary of state. There are some lesser courts on the east side.

The exterior of the palace presents an imposing ensemble. Architectonic

decorativeness is found nowhere. Extreme simplicity characterizes the exterior

walls. According as necessity dictated, æsthetic effect being little considered,

new buildings and annexes were erected, roofs raised, external passages laid

out, lofty halls divided horizontally and pierced for the upper~half of windows

which disfigure the lines of the buildings. Those who seek for uniformity find

much to censure in the palace, but the general effect, viewed from an historical

standpoint, is most pleasing. The Cortile di San Damaso, the view towards St.

Peter's of graceful arcades opening out before the staircase leading to the Sala

Regia by the Portal of Paul II, the lofty entrance door to the library of Sixtus IV, in

the Cortile del Papagallo, the Cortili del Portoncino and della Sentinella are all

magnificent. The Portone della Sentinella leads to the Cortile di Belvedere,

decorated with a beautiful fountain. The view to the right from the windows and

galleries of the Appartemento Borgia and the Stanze di Raffaello is admirable. An

added story replaced the turret of the palace of Nicholas V; the adjacent Torre

Borgia has lost its ancient windows, its roof thereby losing the character of a

tower. Above the transverse wing is the Torre dei Quattro Venti, where was the

Specola Gregoriana, the observatory dating from the days of Gregory XIII, with its

paintings by the Zuccari.

The Giardino della Pigna, lying to the north, is beautifully laid out. In the centre of

the court has stood since 1886, mounted on a marble column, a bronze statue of

St. Peter, in commemoration of the Vatican Council of 1870; numerous

fragments of statues and reliefs are artistically placed standing or flat along the

walls. The quarters of the Swiss Guards on the east side consist of two narrow

parallel buildings, which, with the Sistine Palace and the Torrione di Niccolò V,

form two courts. The inner court is adjacent to the palace, in the other is a gate

leading directly to the city by the colonnades. Beyond this gate is the covered

passage from the palace to Sant' Angelo, now walled up at the point where it

leaves the Vatican territory. A tablet and Inscription and a large coat of arms give

evidence that Alexander VI initiated here extensive works of improvement and

decoration. In the immediate vicinity of the Torrione di Niccolò V earlier lay the

Cavallerizza, the riding ground for the Noble Guard. Between this building and the

quarters of the Swiss Guards is another gate leading to the town. The

Cavallerizza was entirely reconstructed three years ago to accommodate the

Stamperia Segreta (the private press of the Vatican) and the Tipografia Vaticana.

On this occasion Pius X introduced extensive reforms in the printing, bringing it

to the highest level attained by modern technic. North of the printing offices and

parallel to the eastern longitudinal wing of the palace is the huge house which

Pius X reconstructed for the married officials and the servants of the palace. It is

solidly built, conveniently divided and fitted with the best sanitary requirements.

The palace forms a special parish, the administration of which is entrusted to the

Monsignor Sagrista, sacristan of the pope, assisted by the sottosagrista, who

has charge of all the vestments and vessels used In the five chapels of the

palace. The chaplain of the Swiss Guards attends to the vestments of their

chapel. The Cappella Paolina is regarded as the parish church, and is thus one

of the churches of Rome where the Forty Hours' Adoration is inaugurated at the

beginning of each ecclesiastical year. By the Bull, "Ad sacram ordinis", of 15

October, 1497, the ancient custom of selecting the Prefect of the Apostolic

Chapel (the sagrista) from the Augustinian Order was given a legal foundation.

The sagrista is Titular Bishop of Porphyreon, assistant at the throne, and

domestic prelate, and before 1870 was pastor of the Vatican Palace, of the

Quirinal, and of the Lateran. The Quirinal was provisionally attached in 1870 to

the parish of SS. Vincenzo ed Anastasio, and in the Lateran the sagrista was

represented in parochial affairs by the pastor of the basilica. In addition to other

privileges the sagrista has the right of administering Extreme Unction to the

dying pope. Since the reign of Pius IV he is an ex-officio member of the

Conclave. Although, as a bishop, the sagrista enjoys the use of the rochet, he

wears it only in very exceptional cases, always wearing the mozzetta over the

manteletta. His appointment is for life, so that he is not affected by a change of

pontificate.

IV. THE VATICAN GARDENS

Enclosed between the city walls, the zecca (the mint) with the adjacent houses,

and the Viale del Museo, lie the Vatican Gardens, or Boscareccio, into which

visitors are admitted only with the special permission of the sub-Prefect of the

Vatican Palace. They are reached through the museum entrance on the western

side of the palace. To the left of the entrance below is the English Garden, in

which the palma grande (the tallest palm in Rome) and fine citron and orange

trees grow under a protecting roof. At the end of the broad path to the right is a

walk, bordered by boxwood trees fifteen to twenty feet high, which leads between

oaks and ilex trees up the hill on which stands the Casino of Leo XIII, resting on

one of the huge towers of the Leonine Wall (see VATICAN OBSERVATORY).

The pavilion, to the right of the Casino, is on a level with the roof of St. Peter's. In

this section of the garden vineries have been laid out, and vegetables are

cultivated. Before the first Leonine tower a terrace affords a wide view across the

Valle dell' Inferno, from whose ancient brick-works half of Rome has been built.

To the left of the tower is an oak grove where wild flowers grow. Ancient

fragments of marble are strewn everywhere, the paths are kept in entirely rural

fashion, so that this small grove forms an especially enchanting portion of the

gardens. One of the rough walks leads to the Fontana di Paolo Quinto, which is

fed with water from the Lago di Bracciano. The arms of the Borghese proclaims it

the work of Paul V. In the immediate vicinity are the barracks of the papal

gendarmes entrusted with the guarding of the gardens. A few hundred feet below

is the Fontana del Santissimo Sacramento, a fountain so called because in the

centre stands a monstrance whose rays are formed by the water; on either side

rise three vertical streams of water, which represent the candles. A path bordered

by boxwood leads to the court of the Casino of Pius IV, a double building erected

by Pirro Ligorio in 1560, with walls decorated with flint mosaic work. Women

were there received in audience until they were allowed admission to the papal

apartments by Pius IX. Thousands of artistic addresses received by Pius IX, Leo

XIII, and Pius X have been transferred from the library to this Casino, where they

are now preserved (cf. Bouchet, "La Villa Pia des Jardins du Vatican,

architecture de Pirro Ligorio", Paris, 1837). The paintings in the Casino are by

Baroccio, Federigo Zuccaro, and Santi di Titi. Immediately before the casino

opens the subterranean passage which Pius X had constructed so that he might

pass with as little inconvenience as possible from the palace to the gardens. The

appearance of the surrounding park has been altered by excavations, but the

trees have been untouched. The distribution of numerous species of trees and

flowering shrubs makes this portion of the gardens very picturesque. The stretch

of the gardens to the right of the entrance consists of a thick, magnificent alley of

ilex trees, in which some cages may still be seen; these formerly sheltered

ibexes and other animals. The view from here towards Monte Mario over the

circular fountains, and to the right towards the Prati di Castello with Soracte in

the background, is admirable. Scattered around the garden are four other cages

for animals, which contained until a few years ago the lions presented to the

pope by King Menelik, and also ostriches, gazelles, and a number of species of

poultry. All these animals have died, have been given away, or sold, since their

maintenance and care demanded too much attention. The Vatican Gardens are

the only place in which the pope can take exercise in the open air. (Cf.

Friedlander, "Das Kasino Pius des Vierten. Kunstgeschichtliche Forschungen",

ed. Royal Prussian Historical Institute, III, Leipzig, 1912; Donovan, "Rome,

Ancient and Modern, and its Environs", II, Rome, 1844.)

V. THE CHAPELS OF THE VATICAN

In the papal palace there are a large number of chapels which serve various

purposes. By far the largest and the most famous of these is the Sistine Chapel.

A. The Sistine Chapel

The Sistine Chapel is the palatine and court chapel, where all papal ceremonies

and functions and papal elections are held. It was built between 1473 and 1481

by Giovanni de' Dolci at the commission of Sixtus IV. In length 133 feet and in

breadth 46, it has at each side six stained-glass windows, given by the Prince

Regent Leopold of Bavaria in 1911. The lower third of the chapel is separated

from the rest by beautiful marble barriers, which divide the space reserved for

invited visitors on the occasion of great solemnities from that reserved for the

pope, the cardinals, and the papal family. On the wall to the right is the box for

the singers of the famous Sistine Choir. The marble barriers and the balustrade of

the box are by Mino da Fiesole and his assistants.

The rear wall of the chapel is now without a window, being broken only by a small

door on the right, which leads to the sacristy of the chapel. Almost the whole of

this space is occupied by the painting of the Last Judgment (see

MICHELANGELO BUONARROTTI). The frescoes on the side walls were

executed between 1481 and 1483 by Florentine and Umbrian masters. On the

left side are given, as the prototypes, scenes from the life of Moses, and on the

right scenes from the life of Christ -- beginning in both cases from the high altar

and meeting at the entrance door. Perugino, Pinturicchio, Botticelli, Pier di

Cosimo, Rosselli, Signorelli, della Gatta, Ghirlandajo, and Salviati were the

collaborators in the wonderful cycle of paintings. Fiammingo, Matteo da Lecce,

and Diamante are also here immortalized. Some years ago the ceiling frescoes

by Michelangelo were thoroughly cleansed by Ludwig Seitz, and all the

plasterwork blisters which by falling away threatened to work irremediable

damage to the paintings, were again skilfully fastened to the masonry. To lessen

the effect on the paintings caused by any great change of temperature, Leo XIII

installed in the chapel a system of central heating which prevents the walls from

becoming icy cold in winter. (See Steinmann "Die Sixtinische Kapelle", 2 vols.

and atlas, Munich, 1900-05.)

B. The Cappella Paolina

The Cappella Paolina, which serves as the parish church of the Vatican, is

separated from the Sistine Chapel only by the Sala Regia. It received its name

from Paul III, who had it erected in 1540 by Antonio da Sangallo the Younger.

Before 1550 Michelangelo painted two frescoes here, the Conversion of Paul and

the Crucifixion of Peter. Other paintings in the chapel are by Lorenzo Sabbatini

and Federico Zuccaro. The statues in the background are by P. Bresciano.

Before the opening of the conclave the Sacred College assembles in this chapel

to attend a sermon in which the members are reminded of their obligation quickly

to give to the Church her ablest son as ruler and guide. The cardinals then

withdraw to the Sistine Chapel. In the Cappella Paolina are sung daily the

conclave Solemn Masses "De Spiritu Sancto", at which all members of the

conclave must be present.

C. The Chapel of Nicholas V

While the two above-named chapels are situated on the first floor of the palace,

which bounds the Cortile di San Damaso, the Chapel of Nicholas V (chapel of

San Lorenzo) lies on the second floor in the immediate vicinity of the Stanze and

Loggie of Raphael. Built by Nicholas V, the chapel was adorned (1450-55) by Fra

Angelico with frescoes, depicting chiefly scenes from the lives of Sts. Laurence

and Stephen. This wonderful series of paintings is Angelico's greatest work.

D. The Pope's Private Chapel

In the reception rooms of the pope, between the Sala degli Arazzi and the Sala

del Trono, lies a smaller room, from which a door leads to the private chapel of

the pope, where the Blessed Sacrament is always reserved. Here the pope

usually celebrates his Mass, and hither are invited those who are accorded the

privilege of receiving Communion from his hand. The lay members of the papal

family usually make their Easter Communion in this chapel on the Monday in

Holy Week; the prelates of Rome make theirs on Holy Thursday. On both these

occasions the pope celebrates. After Mass all are entertained at breakfast in the

Sala dei Paramenti, the majordomo representing the pope as host.

E. Cappella della Sala Matilde

On days when a larger number of strangers are admitted to assist at the pope's

Mass, the Holy Father uses the Cappella della Sala Matilde, a simple but

tastefully decorated chapel which Pius X had erected in the Sala Matilde on the

second floor in the middle building.

F. The Chapel of the Swiss Guards

The Chapel of the Swiss Guards lies at the foot of the papal residence in the

immediate vicinity of the Portone di Bronzo and the quarters of the Swiss

Guards, and in it the services for the Guards are celebrated by their special

chaplain. This Chapel of Sts. Martin and Sebastian dates from the sixteenth

century, and has a special charm.

The former Cappelle di San Pio V lay on the southern end of the present halls of

the library, the chapels being situated under one another on three floors. The

middle chapel on the first floor formerly contained the addresses recently

transferred to the Casino of Pius IV. The paintings here are by Giorgio Vasari.

VI. THE PALACE AS A PLACE OF RESIDENCE

The Vatican Palace was not intended and built as a residence. Only a

comparatively small portion of the palace is residential; all the remainder serves

the purposes of art and science or is employed for the administration of the

official business of the Church and for the management of the palace, The

rooms formerly intended specially for residence are to-day utilized to

accommodate collections or as halls of state. Hence, the Vatican can more

properly be regarded as a huge museum and a centre of scientific investigation

than as a residence. The residential portion of the palace is around the Cortile di

San Damaso, and includes also the quarters of the Swiss Guards and of the

gendarmes situated at the foot of this section. Of some 1000 rooms in the whole

palace about 200 serve as residential apartments for the pope, the secretary of

state, the highest court officials, the high officials in close attendance on the

pope, and some scientific and administrative officials. This limited number could

be increased only with the most costly and extensive alterations. When the

temporal dominion of the pope came to an end in 1870, a large number of the

minor officials and servants of the Quirinal Palace had to be sustained during the

confusion of the time; these latter were temporarily assigned previously unused

rooms of the Vatican. Pius X executed the plan of erecting in the immediate

vicinity of the Vatican a special large residence for all these families, where they

are now accommodated. This practical innovation affords them pleasant and

commodious quarters.

In the eastern wing (facing towards Rome) of the residential section the pope

occupies two floors. On the upper floor (the third) he resides with his two private

secretaries and some servants; on the second floor he works and receives

visitors. One suite of rooms receives the morning, and the other the midday and

afternoon sun. The second floor includes the reception rooms, which the visitor

enters through the wonderful Sala Clementina, where a division of the Swiss

Guards keep watch at the entrance to the papal apartments. The next room is

the Anticamera Bassa, in which the servants stand, and in which all summoned

to an audience lay aside their wraps. An air-trap opens into the Sala dei

Gendarmi, so called because two gendarmes in court uniform are there

stationed. A covered way leads backwards through the court to the working-room

of the pope. The next hall is known as the Sala del Cantone or Sala della

Guardia Palatina, as it is a corner room where during the reception a division of

the Palatine Guards are drawn up. The eastern suite of rooms begins with the

Sala degli Arazzi, in which three huge Gobelin tapestries resented by Louis XV

adorn the walls. Between this and the Sala del Trono is a smaller room which

serves to accommodate the Noble Guard, and leads to the pope's private chapel.

The floor of the throne room is covered with a specially manufactured and costly

Spanish carpet presented to Leo XIII. The room is simply fitted, giving a very

impressive and restful effect.

Behind the throne room stands the Anticamera Segreta, at the entrance of which

a member of the Noble Guard stands. The old and very valuable Gobelin

tapestry which covers the floor is practically indestructible, but is tended with

great care. In this room wait the majordomo or the maestro di camera and one or

more spiritual chamberlains, when audiences are to be given. Here also wait the

cardinals and persons of rank and station until their turn comes, while the others

summoned to the audience wait in the throne room or in the other above-named

halls. Situated on a corner, this room offers a wonderful view of the city and the

Campagna to the east, the Piazza S. Pietro and the Janiculum to the south. Two

smaller rooms and the Sala del Tronetto lie between the Anticamera Segreta and

the pope's library, which is both his working-room and his reception room for

current private audiences. Not far from the entrance of the library stands the

pope's unpretentious, large writing-desk, beside which are some seats for

visitors. In the middle of this large room, which is splendidly lighted by three

windows, stands a broad mahogany table several yards long. The library cases

run along the four walls, and above them hang twelve exquisite paintings of

animals. Other decorations and fittings of the room combine in perfect harmony;

it is an ideal working-room.

Over the Anticamera Segreta, the Sala del Tronetto, and the two adjoining rooms

is the pope's private chancellery, accessible only by a staircase from the inner

vestibule of the library. Here, under the pope's direction, two secretaries with a

staff of assistants transact all the unofficial affairs of the pontiff.

Immediately under these working and reception rooms of the pope is the suite of

the secretary of state, who under Pius IX and Leo XIII occupied what are now the

private rooms of the pope. Leo XIII assigned this suite temporarily to Cardinal

Ledochowski, when he came to Rome from the prison of Ostrowo. These

neglected rooms were recently renovated by a Spanish ecclesiastic of wealthy

family. Here the secretary of state receives twice weekly the diplomats

accredited to the Holy See and numerous other visitors. Along the Scala Pia,

built and covered by Pius IX, which leads from the Portone di Bronzo to the

Court of St. Damasus, lie the extensive apartments of the maestro di camera

and the majordomo. The other residents of the palace are the four spiritual

chamberlains in immediate attendance, the monsignor sagrista, the maestro del

sacro palazzo (a Dominican, theological adviser of the pope and censor of the

books printed in Rome), under-secretary of state, prefect of the Vatican Library,

household administrator of the Apostolic Palace, other court and administrative

officials, and a few servants.

VII. THE PALACE AS A TREASURY OF ART

The Vatican contains an abundance of works of art, which are now catalogued in

every tourist's guide-book. On the one hand are museums and collections and

on the other the interior decoration of the palace. The Vatican treasures of art

also include much of scientific importance, which will be treated in the following

section. Here belong especially the rich treasures exhibited in the library and

various other objects. The Vatican works of art represent in their entirety an

irreplaceable treasure, which is not actively at the disposal of the Curia, but

passively in their possession, since the repair and maintenance of these objects

make great claims on the resources of the Holy See. Those who proclaim the

riches of the Curia should know that, though the works of art are worth many

hundred millions, they have no market value. The Holy See, notwithstanding its

difficult financial position, values too highly its civilizing mission to divest itself of

these treasures, which are being constantly increased.

A. The Vatican Museums

Cosimo Stornaiolo says in one passage: "The attitude of the Church towards the

statues of the false gods and similar works of art was proclaimed by the

Christian poet Prudentius in the fourth century as follows (Contra Symmachum,

1, 502): 'Let the statues be retained merely as the works of great masters; as

such they may constitute the greatest ornament of our native town [Rome]

without the misuse of an art which serves the wicked contaminating these

memorials.' In accordance with this spirit of the Church, the early Christian

emperors issued repeatedly laws against the destroyers of ancient works of art,

and medieval Rome saw on all sides -- in its public squares, in the ruins of the

ancient palaces, and in the villas of the neighbourhood -- numberless statues of

gods, emperors, and renowned men. It is true that, during a period of

unrestrained barbarism when the popes transferred their residence from Rome to

Avignon, works in marble found their way to the lime-kilns; but scarcely were

these times past, during which Petrarch declares the Romans had degenerated

to a nation of cowherds, than the popes, in accordance with their full conviction

that the Church was the first-called protectress and patroness of art, devoted

their attention to the preservation of the ancient objects of art. The papal palaces

thus possess so great an abundance of masterpieces of all ages for the

instruction and enjoyment of both the friends and the enemies of the papacy

that, were all the other collections of the world destroyed by some catastrophe,

the Vatican collection would suffice for the perpetuation of all æsthetic culture,

both pagan and Christian. The popes were not alone the first to establish

museums, but they have also by their example spurred all other governments of

Europe to imitation, and thereby performed a great service in the refining of

artistic taste among all modern nations. For the Vatican museums, in contrast to

so many others, were instituted purely from æsthetic, and not from historical

considerations." These important remarks apply not alone to the museums, but

likewise to all the Vatican collections and scientific institutions. The Vatican

museums are: (1) The Museo Pio-Clementino; (2) the Galleria Chiaramonti; (3)

the Braccio Nuovo; (4) the Egyptian Museum; (5) the Etruscan Museum.

(1) The Museo Pio-Clementino

The first collection of antiquities in the world was made by Popes Julius II, Leo

X, Clement VII, and Paul III in the Belvedere. Of the treasures there collected,

most of which were a few decades later (especially by Pius V) given away or

removed, only a few of the prominent objects maintain their place in the Vatican

to-day. To these belong, for example, the Torso of Heracles, the Belvedere

Apollo, and the Laocoon. Clement XIV's activity in collecting antiquities was

continued by Pius VI with such great success that their combined collections,

arranged by Ennio Quirino Visconti, were united in one large museum, named for

these popes, the Museo Pio-Clementino. It contains eleven separate rooms,

filled with celebrated antiquities.

(a) Sala a croce greca. -- At the expense of half a million lire ($100,000) Pius VI

had the two gigantic porphyry sarcophagi of Sts. Helena and Constantia, the

mother and daughter of Constantine the Great, repaired and transferred to this

museum, built by Simonetti. Conspicuous among the statues is that of the

youthful Octavian, one of the very few ancient statues of which the head was

never separated from the trunk. Among the few mosaics is the Cnidian Venus,

which is esteemed the most perfect copy of the masterpiece of Praxiteles.

(b) Sala della Biga. -- The masterly restoration of an ancient two-wheeled racing

chariot, drawn by two horses, by the sculptor Franzoni has given its name to the

beautiful circular room erected by Camporesi. The wheels and one of the horses

are new, a fact which only the expert can discern. In this room are also a

bearded Bacchus, two discus-throwers, a bearded athlete, sarcophagi, and other

works of art.

(c) Galleria dei Candelabri. -- Under Pius VI the very long Hall of Bramante was

closed on this side, and was divided into six compartments by arches resting on

Dorian columns of vari-coloured marble. In addition to many vessels of costly

marbles, eight magnificent candelabra of white marble, after which this hail is

named, are especially conspicuous. The exquisitely fine tracings and

arabesques are among the finest examples of this form of art. A Ganymede

carried away by an eagle, a local goddess of a town in Antiochia, a Greek runner,

and a fighting Persian are the most important among the numerous sculptures.

Especially valuable is a sarcophagus with a representation in mezzo-rilievo of the

tragedy of the daughters of Niobe. This hail was selected by Leo XIII to

immortalize, through Ludwig Seitz, some of the most important acts of his

pontificate. In a deeply thoughtful composition the artist represented St. Thomas

Aquinas as the teacher of Christian philosophy, the agreement between religion

and science, the union of ancient pagan and Christian art, the Rosary and the

battle of Lepanto, and Divine grace in its various activities as working in Sts.

Clara of Montefalco, Benedict Labre, Laurence of Brindisi, and John Baptist de

Rossi, canonized in 1881. Seitz also painted a symbolic representation of four

ideas taken from the Encyclicals of Leo XIII: Christian marriage, the praise of

the Third Order of St. Francis, the condemnation of Freemasonry, and the

agreement between secular and religious authority. This classical cycle of

paintings is important (cf. Senes, "Galleria dei Candelabri, affreschi di Ludovico

Seitz", Rome, 1891).

(d) Sala rotonda. -- Built after the model of the Pantheon by Simonetti, this hall

contains as its most precious object the bust of the Zeus of Otricoli. Pius IX

paid 268,000 lire ($53,600) for the colossal gilt bronze statue of Hercules. The

Barberini Hera, as it is called, is an exquisite work of art. The great mosaic in

the floor, in the centre of which is a monster porphyry shell, was discovered at

Otricoli in 1780.

(e) Sala delle Muse. -- The eight-cornered hall, which Pius VI commissioned

Simonetti to build, was intended to receive the nine Muses under the leadership

of Apollo, as well as busts of all those who should have acquired renown in the

service of the same. Pius VI here paid brilliant homage to art and science,

representing truth with a noble magnanimity against the brutal caricatures of

culture of the waning eighteenth century.

(f) Sala degli animali. -- This room contains the richest collection in the world of

(about 150) representations of animals from classical antiquity, many of the

works of art being of high importance.

(g) Galleria delle statue. -- Innocent VIII (1484-92) had a summer-house erected

in the vicinity of the Belvedere, and had it adorned with frescoes by Mantegna

and Pinturicchio. Clement XIV and Pius VI had this building altered, and

transferred thither such important treasures as the Weeping Penelope, the

Apollo Sauroktonos, the Amazon from the Villa Mattei, a Greek monumental

stele, the Sleeping Ariadne, and the Barberini Candelabra.

(h) Sala dei Busti. -- In this second division of the former summer-house are over

100 busts of Romans, gods and goddesses, etc.

(i) Gabinetto delle Maschere. -- The floor mosaic with masques, found in the Villa

Hadriana at Tivoli in 1780, gives this third division of the summer-house its

name. Worthy of special mention is the renowned Satyr, of rosso antico, and the

dancing woman of Pentelic marble from Naples.

(j) Cortile del Belvedere. -- The former square court belonging to the ancient

Belvedere was adorned in 1775 with a pillared hall, and in 1803 the chamfered

corner halls were converted into little temples. In the first of these stands the

unrivalled and celebrated Laocoon group. It was discovered near Sette Sale in

1506, during the reign of Julius II, and was named by Michelangelo the miracle of

art. In the second little temple is the admirable Belvedere Apollo, discovered

near Grotta Ferrata about 1490. Canova was allowed to exhibit his Perseus and

the Two Boxers in the third temple, where, however, they are not seen to

advantage. In the fourth temple is the well-known Hermes dating from the fourth

century before Christ; formerly this statue was thought to represent Antinous.

(k) Gabinetti del Belvedere. -- In the three cabinets, or atria, are conspicuous the

statue of Meleager, the above-mentioned Torso of Belvedere, and the sarcophagi

and inscriptions relating to the Scipio family.

(2) The Galleria Chiaramonti

Thirty-four pilasters indicate the thirty sections into which the Galleria

Chiaramonti is divided in the corridor 492 feet long. More than 300 sculptures,

mostly of smaller dimensions and of a variety of subjects, are here artistically

exhibited. They are chiefly the work of Greek sculptors living in Rome, and are

carved after Grecian models. Prominent among the original Greek works are the

Daughters of Niobe, a relief in B otian limestone, and the head of Neptune.

(3) The Braccio Nuovo

Although many of the halls of the Museo Pio-Clementino, especially those built

by Simonetti, viewed from the purely architectonic standpoint, make a very

brilliant impression and justly command much admiration, still the Braccio Nuovo

is incontestably the crown of the museum buildings. The general impression of

absolute perfection and symmetry is effected by the harmonious proportions of

the long hail, the method of lighting, and the arrangement of the masterpieces

exhibited. This hall was erected by Raphael Stern at the commission of Pius VII,

at a cost of 1,500,000 lire ($300,000). The magnificent barrel-vault is decorated

with richly gilt cassettes; the cornices, the fourteen antique columns of giallo

antico, cipollino, alabaster, and Egyptian granite, the transverse hall equally

dividing the whole, the marble floor, all contribute an appropriate setting for the

masterpieces. In this museum stand twenty-eight statues in as many niches,

while in the transverse hall are fifteen more. Between the niches on marble

consoles are twenty-eight busts; others rest on mural consoles; between these

and the cornice beautiful bas-reliefs are set in the walls. At the rear of the hall

stands the statue of the Athlete (of Apoxyomenus) cleaning himself of sweat and

dust with a scraper. This statue, as well as that of the other Athlete (the

Doryphorus, or spearsman), are antique copies of the Greek originals of

Lysippus and Polycletus. The majestic statue of Augustus haranguing his

soldiers bears evident traces of having once been painted. Among the

abundance of treasures here exhibited is the colossal recumbent figure of the

Nile, on whose body play sixteen children representing the sixteen cubits in the

annual rise of the river. (Consult Amelung, "Die Skulpturen des vatikanischen

Museum", 2 vols., with charts, Berlin, 1905-08.)

(4) The Egyptian Museum

The collection of Egyptian objects was begun by Pius VII, but the museum was

not opened until 1838, during the pontificate of Gregory XVI. The Cavaliere de

Fabris superintended the decorations in Egyptian characters, while the Barnabite

Father Aloys Ungarelli arranged the objects for exhibition. The basis of the

museum was supplied by the collections of Andrea Gaddi and Cardinal Borgia of

Velletri, and by the objects of public property distributed throughout the Papal

States. Other valuable objects were acquired by purchase. Most of the papyrus

manuscripts were brought hither in 1818 by the Franciscan Angelo da Pofi.

Although the ten halls full of statues, sarcophagi, mummies, sacred animals,

and other things, do not attain the importance of the Egyptian museums in

Berlin, Paris, London, Turin, and Hildesheim, the Roman is among the first

Egyptian collections of second rank. Particularly notable are the sculptures of

the modern period and the monuments (interesting for their style) which were

prepared during the reign of Hadrian for his villa near Tivoli. (Consult Marucchi, "Il

Museo Egizio Vaticano discritto ed illustrato", Rome, 1899; Idem, "Monumenta

papyracea ægyptica", Rome, 1891.)

(5) The Etruscan Museum

This museum is situated over the Egyptian. To Gregory XVI it owes its

foundation; to Pius IX, many of its treasures; to Leo XIII, its decoration and

systematic arrangement. The excavations made in Western Etruria between

1828 and 1836 furnished the basis of the museum, which contains statues,

sarcophagi, bowls, vessels of every kind and shape, mosaics, lamps, and

numerous other objects of every description, giving a highly graphic picture of the

art of ancient Italy and the customs of the Etruscans. This entirely unique

collection is of prime interest. (Consult Nogara, "I Vasi antichi del Museo

Etrusco e della Biblioteca dei Palazzo Vaticano", Rome, 1912; Nogara and

Pinza, "La tomba Regolini Galassi e gli altri materiali coevi del Museo

Gregoriano-Etrusco", Rome, 1912.)

B. The Vatican Pinacotheca

Among the valuable treasures of art, manuscripts, archives, and collections

which Napoleon confiscated on his campaigns and conveyed to Paris, were the

most prominent art treasures of the Vatican and the churches in the Papal

States. When these treasures were brought back from Paris in 1815, Pius VII

formed them into a collection, added other paintings, and formed them into a

picture-gallery. This (the Vatican Pinacotheca) was first lodged in the

Appartamento Borgia, then transferred to the third story of the palace,

immediately adjacent to the former suite of the secretary of state. The

disadvantages of this situation increased when Pius X entered into personal

occupation of the suite of the secretary of State. The rooms were not

architecturally fitted for a picture-gallery, and the constant stream of visitors

caused annoyance. After long considerations as to convenience and safety from

fire, Pius X decided to remove the collection to the rooms on the ground floor of

the Vialone del Museo. These rest on stout arches, and in them the papal

equipages of ancient and modern times had been kept. To these were added two

rooms which were adjacent to the old library of Sixtus IV and had previously been

used as a magazine. Louis Seitz, assisted by some other artists and in constant

consultation with the sub-Prefect of the Apostolic Palaces, Mgr. Misciatelli, was

intrusted with the gigantic task of transferring these priceless treasures and

decorating the rooms. Seitz died before the work was finally completed. The

artistic spirit shown in the whole plan and decoration of the new pinacotheca is

worthy of admiration. The arrangement is perfect, and the effect of the whole will

improve with time.

The few masters allowed to foregather in the old picture-gallery were Raphael,

Leonardo da Vinci, Fra Angelico da Fiesole, Guercino, Caravaggio, Crivelli,

Garofalo, Bartolomeo Mantegna, Murillo, Francesco Cossa, Perugino, Bonifazio,

Domenichino, Titian, Ribera, Pinturicchio, Giulio Romano, Francesco Penni

called il Fattore, lo Spagna, Sassoferrato, Niccolò da Foligno, Melozzo da Forli,

Valentino Baroccio, Guido Reni, N. Poussin, A. Sacchi, Moretto, Paolo

Veronese, and Correggio. Beside Leonardo da Vinci and Fra Angelico, the

Venetian School is represented by Crivelli, Titian, and Paolo Veronese; the

Bolognese by Domenichino's "Communion of St. Jerome" and Guide Reni's

"Crucifixion of St. Peter"; the Lombardic by the "Pietà" of Amerighi da

Caravaggio; the French by Pierre Valentin's "Martyrdom of Sts. Processus and

Martianus"; and other Schools by various canvasses. Altogether 56

masterpieces had to be transferred from the old to the new gallery. In 1904, when

the Greek abbey of Grottaferrata celebrated its ninth centenary with an exhibition

of its forgotten treasures, 181 valuable Byzantine paintings were there acquired

for the Vatican. To these were added 40 taken from the Lateran and other

collections in the Apostolic palaces, making an addition of 221 besides the 56

from the old gallery. All the paintings which were not judged worthy to be

exhibited side by side with the masterpieces of the earlier collection have been

transferred to a magazine adjoining the gallery, where they may be examined by

artists. A very simple opening celebration was held at the end of 1909. In the

gallery itself is the marble bust of Pius X, by Seebock, which is the pope's

favourite likeness of himself. The light, which enters hrough the lofty circular

windows, is regulated hourly by shades, and the paintings are always excellently

illuminated. The large rooms have been divided into sections, so that the

distribution of the paintings into separate compartments renders the general

effect harmonious. The collection of paintings in the Pinacotheca is priceless in

value. (Concerning the origin of the Vatican Pinacotheca consult Platner-Bunsen,

"Beschreibung den Stadt Rom", II, 2nd ed., 415; for works on the new

Pinacotheca, see the official report, "La Nuova Pinacoteca Vaticana", with

chants, Rome, 1909.)

C. The Gallery of Modern Paintings

Not so much artistic value, which is comparatively small, as the glory of the

Church is seen in the majority of the pictures collected in the small Gallery of

Modern Paintings. With few exceptions they are estimable achievements of

Roman artists, and are devoted to the glorification of those saints who have been

canonized in the second half of the past century. They hang in a single large

hall, beside which is accommodated the colossal canvas of Matejko

representing the saving of Vienna by John Sobieski in 1683. This unique

painting was purchased for Leo XIII in 1884 with a subscription started by a

wealthy Pole. In a third ball are exhibited the frescoes of Podesti, among which

is conspicuous the great picture (the heads of all the personages are painted

from portraits) depicting the promulgation of the doctrine of the Immaculate

Conception by Pius IX. Before this painting stands a magnificent shrine, in which

the text of the Bull of Promulgation, translated into many languages is preserved.

The shrine was presented to Pius IX by the French clergy in 1878.

D. The Appartamento Borgia

On the first floor of the palace, looking towards the north and the Cortile del

Belvedere, one may enter from the Loggie of Giovanni da Udine these

apartments which Alexander VI had erected in what is called the Old Palace (of

Nicholas V). These rooms received their title from Alexander's family name,

Borgia. Here on 18 January, 1495, Alexander received King Charles VIII of

France and entered into long negotiations with him. Here also Charles V was

accommodated, when, a few years after the sack of Rome, he returned

victorious from Tunis and was received by the pope as the conqueror of the

Turk. Succeeding popes did not occupy this suite, utilizing the Stanze di

Raffaello, because there they had better light and air. From many sources it

appears that, until the close of the seventeenth century, the Appartamento

Borgia was occupied by the cardinal nephews, or, as they were later called,

secretaries of state. After the Palace of Sixtus V had been completed under

Clement VIII (cf. Colnabrini, "Ruolo degli appartamenti e delle stanze nel

Palazzo Vaticano al tempo di Clemente VIII", Rome, 1895), the Stanze di

Raffaelo and the apartments of Alexander VI were neglected, and during the

seventeenth and eighteenth centuries they were used only for conclave purposes.

About the middle of the eighteenth century the Sale Borgia were used only as a

refectory for the lower officials of the palace during Holy Week. During the

French occupation of Rome, these rooms suffered much injury from the soldiery,

so that immense sums had to be spent by Pius VII for architectural repair.

When the Appartamento Borgia was used as the Pinacotheca, the marble

cross-beams were removed from the windows, and replaced with iron grating, and

everything was done to secure suitable lighting for the works of art. As every

endeavour proved unsatisfactory, the paintings were removed in 1821 to the third

story, and the pope then established here a museum of statues, known as the

Museo Miscellaneo (for a detailed description see Platner-Bunsen, op. cit.; cf.

the drawings of Craffonara and Guattani, and also Massi, "Indicazione antiquaria

delle Sale Borgia", Rome, 1830).

As the Appartamento Borgia consisted of six rooms, and only the first four were

employed for the museum, the remaining two were turned over to the Vatican

Library, to which they are adjacent. In the winter of 1838-39 the museum was

limited to the first two rooms, and the two which were then vacated were likewise

transferred to the library. Finally, Pius IX added also the last two halls to the

library, distributing the marble works between the Vatican and the Lateran

museums. Having acquired the renowned library of Cardinal Angelo Mai on 8

September, 1854, the pope had this housed in the first two rooms of the

Appartamento, closing them to the public. The artistic creations of Pinturicchio

which adorn the walls were, however, restored to the admiration of the public

when Leo XIII opened the Borgia suite, establishing there the consulting library

of printed books by Decree of 20 April, 1889. The ceilings and lunettes, which

preserve the paintings of the great Umbrian artist, had suffered little despite the

vicissitudes of the Sale Borgia, but the walls and the floor had received serious

damage. Louis Seitz maintained, however, that a thorough cleaning and the

covering of the damaged places with colour would sufficiently restore the

frescoes, so that Pinturicchio's original work remains.

General architectural restoration was successfully undertaken. The doors which

had been broken through the walls were closed up, and the former doors

reopened. After the removal of the white colouring which covered the walls,

extensive traces of the old ornamentation were revealed, and the whole restored

in the spirit of the Alexandrine epoch. Plaster blisters which had formed on the

paintings were secured in place without the slightest damage to the frescoes.

The floor required complete reconstruction. Remnants of the original majolica

floor were discovered, and with the aid of these, and special technical studies, a

new parquetry for the floor was elaborated in perfect harmony with the remaining

fittings of the Borgia suite. The complete fitting of the rooms was not attempted;

but the huge walls were beautifully furnished in exquisite taste. In 1897 Leo XIII

solemnly opened the Appartamento Borgia, declaring it an integral portion of the

Vatican collections which were accessible to the general visitor. Simultaneous

with this manifestation of the pope's sympathy with art appeared the following

work, dedicated to him: "Gil affreschi del Pinturicchio nell' appartamento Borgia

del Palazzo Apostolico Vaticano, riprodotti in Fototipia e accompagnati da un

Commentario di Francesco Ehrle, S.J. prefetto della Biblioteca Vaticana, e del

Commendatore Enrico Stevenson, direttore del Museo Numismatico Vaticano"

(Rome, 897). When Pius X occupied the former suite of the secretary of state,

the Appartamento Borgia was temporarily devoted to the secretariate. The rooms

were then beautifully furnished for residence, thus restoring the ensemble they

presented in the time of Alexander VI and his successors (cf. Ehrle-Stevenson,

pp. 26-27). When a special suite of rooms was later prepared for the secretary of

state, the Appartamento Borgia was again opened to the public.

(1) The first of the six rooms, Sala dei Pontefici, was not part of the pope's

private apartments, being a public hall in which audiences were given and

consistories held. The beautiful stucco decorations harmonize well with the

paintings of Giovanni da Udine and Perrin del Vaga, who painted the Zodiac and

some representations of stars.

(2) In the second hall, Sala dei Misteri, the mysteries of the life of Christ are

depicted. Here are the Annunciation, the Nativity, the Adoration of the Magi, the

Resurrection and the Ascension of Christ, the Descent of the Holy Ghost, and

the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin. Besides the general sketch for the

pictures and other decorations in this hall, the lifelike figure of Alexander VI is

from Pinturicchio's hand, as are also the figures of the prelates represented in

the Assumption. All the rest was painted by his assistants; attempts have been

made to prove that these belonged to one of the Italian Schools.

(3) Sala dei Santi is the name given to the third ball, which contains a series of

scenes from the lives of Sts. Catherine of Siena, Barbara, Paul and Anthony,

and Sebastian. All these glorious frescoes were executed by Pinturicchio

himself, as was the beautiful circular picture of the Madonna and the scene of

the Visitation.

(4) Grammar, dialectics, rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, music, and astrology,

that is the seven liberal arts, were represented by Pinturicchio, with the extensive

aid of his assistants, in the fourth hall, Sala delle arti liberali. These paintings

have suffered more from dampness than those in the other rooms.

(5-6) The last two rooms, del Credo and delle Sibille, are situated in the Torre

Borgia. The decorations in these rooms are not by Pinturicchio and have been

injured by overpainting. A Latin inscription records the munificence of Leo XIII,

who "restored this dwelling . . . to its pristine dignity and dedicated it in the

twentieth year of his pontificate". (Cf. Jesorone, "L'antico Pavimento delle Logge

di Raffaello in Vaticano", Naples, 1891; Volpini, "L'appartamento Borgia", Rome,

1887.)

E. Stanze di Raffaello

The Stanze di Raffaello are an exact reproduction of the Appartamento, but are

situated one floor higher. They thus include four rooms in the Palace of Nicholas

V and two in the Torre Borgia, which serve for the Exhibition of Modern Paintings.

As explained above, the popes, who once occupied the Appartamento Borgia,

later removed one story bigher, into the rooms which are known to-day as the

Stanze di Raffaello, because they were painted by Raphael. Julius II desired a

comparatively simple pictorial decoration of his suite, and entrusted the task to

the painters Piero della Francesco, Luca da Cortona, Bartolomeo della Gatta,

Pietro Perugino, and Bramantino da Milano. During the progress of the work the

architect Bramante Lazzari of Urbino persuaded the pope to summon his nephew

Raphael Sanzio from Florence to assist the others. One of the walls of the third

room, the Stanza della Segnatura, was assigned to the young Raphael, who

between 1508 and 1511 painted there "Theology" and the "Disputa"; these works

so delighted the pope that he entrusted to Raphael the decoration of the entire

Stanze. All other paintings were removed with the exception of those in the vault

of the fourth room, where Pietro Perugino, Raphael's teacher, had, in four parts,

depicted: the adoration of the Blessed Trinity by the Twelve Apostles, the

Saviour with Mercy and Justice at his side, the Father enthroned on the rainbow,

and the Redeemer between Moses and Jacob. Raphael could not accomplish

this task, with his other commissions, unaided. The sketches are all his, but

many of the paintings were executed by his assistants and pupils, some after his

death in 1520.

(1) The first hall is called the Sala di Costantino. The frescoes were executed

after Raphael's death by Giulio Romano, Francesco Penni, and Raffaello dal

Colle. The chief incident depicted on the longitudinal wall is the battle of Milvian

Bridge, which Constantine the Great fought against Maxentius. The baptism of

Constantine, the presentation of Rome to Sylvester I by the emperor, and the

latter's address to his troops concerning his dream (In hoc signo vinces) are all

important compositions. The smaller pictures and the socle paintings are of a

simpler kind. The painting of the ceiling was not finished until the reign of Sixtus

(2) The paintings in the second hail, the Stanza d'Eliodoro, are almost

exclusively by Raphael. His most important fresco is the "Mass of Bolsena",

which represents how a priest, who did not believe in transubstantiation was

converted when the Blood ran from the Host after the Consecration. "The Retreat

of Attila" represents Leo I (beside whom stand the Apostles Peter and Paul),

with the features of Leo X, and the pope's attendants are to some extent

contemporary portraits. This is an extremely effective and superbly coloured

painting. The light effects in the third fresco "The Deliverance of St. Peter", are

wonderful. From the fourth picture, "Expulsion of Heliodorus from the Temple at

Jerusalem" (II Mach., iii), the hall has taken its name. The brilliant painting,

strength of expression, and harmonious colour effects form the basis of the

fame of this masterpiece. The paintings on the ceiling are poorly preserved.

(3) In the Stanza della Segnatura (the supreme court of justice, which sat here

under the presidency of the pope) Raphael began his works. On the ceiling are

"Theology", "Poetry", "Philosophy", and "Justice". On the walls, under

"Theology", is the "Disputa", the fundamental ideas for which were taken,

according to the latest theories of Wilpert, from the "Last Judgment" of Pietro

Cavallini, at Santa Cecilia in Rome. Wilpert has established doubtful identities of

the saints. The name "Disputa", though inappropriate, has clung to the painting.

The difficulties presented by the conditions of the hall were splendidly overcome

by Raphael in the second picture, "Parnassus". Apollo and the Muses, with

Homer, Dante, Virgil, Sappho, Pindar, Horace, and many other personages, are

here united in one composition, which breathes forth the gladness and poetic

strivings of the Renaissance. In the "School of Athens" all branches of

knowledge are represented and powerfully characterized. Plato and Aristotle are

the centres of the organically arranged groups; Socrates, Diogenes, Ptolemy,

and Zoroaster are also easily recognizable. Other forms are not clearly

distinguishable except the portraits of some contemporaries. To the extreme

right Raphael has painted himself beside Sodoma. On the wall containing the

windows are some smaller paintings and the glorification of canon and civil law.

Here again are portraits of contemporaries, especially those of Julius II and Leo

(4) In the fourth hall, the Stanza dell' Incendio, Perin del Vaga has painted Leo III

taking the oath of purgation before Charlemagne; Giulio Romano, the victory of

Leo III over the Saracens at Ostia; Francesco Penni, the fire in the Borgo, a

painting from which the room has taken its name. The crowning of Charlemagne

at old St. Peter's is more conventional and superficial in conception. Raphael's

sketches for this hall reveal the summit of his artistic development (1517). The

ceiling paintings are by Perugino. Numerous smaller works are painted beside

and under the chief paintings in the Stanze. The majority of the frescoes still

remain in an almost perfect condition, due to the zealous solicitude with which

the works are cared for.

F. Loggie di Raffaello

Immediately adjacent to the Stanze of Raphael, which begin on the second story

of the Loggie of the Court of St. Damasus, lie the well-known Loggie named after

the Umbrian master. They were unprotected from all inclemencies of the weather

until 1813, when Pius VII erected large windows. The wonderful frescoes were

painted in accordance with the sketches of Raphael and under his constant

personal supervision, by Giulio Romano, Giovanni da Udine, and other artists in

1517-19. The whole plasterwork is by Giovanni da Udine, who also painted all the

ornaments. The long passage is divided by thirteen vaults into as many sections.

The frescoes of the ceiling in the vaults, twelve of which contain scenes from the

Old Testament, and one from the New Testament, are the chief attraction of the

Loggie. These quadrilateral, framed paintings, four in each vault, display rich

imagination and marvellous beauty of composition, and are among the most

characteristic creations of the master. The graceful and charming reliefs, the

delicate ornaments, the sitting, standing, hopping, and dancing figures, and the

numerous other admirable details make the Loggie an inexhaustible source of

the richest inspiration for every artist.

G. The Loggie di Giovanni da Udine

Immediately under the Loggie of Raphael, on the first floor, are the Loggie of

Giovanni da Udine. The general scheme for this suite is likewise due to Raphael,

but the execution was the independent task of Giovanni. The caps of the vaults

are beautifully decorated with leaf and tendril-work, enlivened by animals of all

kinds. In the rear of the Loggie, under a magnificent Renaissance portal of great

delicacy, dating from the time of Leo X, the marble bust of Giovanni is exhibited.

The other portions of the Loggie of the first and second floors were painted in

entirely unpretentious fashion under Clement VIII and Alexander VII by

Lanfranco, Marco da Faenza, Paul Schor, Consoni, and Mantovani. These are

not accessible to the general public.

H. Galleria degli Arazzi

In a modestly decorated hall, immediately adjacent to the Galleria dei

Candelabri, hang the famous twenty-seven pieces of tapestry -- called arazzi.

Woven of silk, wool, and gold thread by van Orlay and van Coxis in Brussels at a

cost of $3400 each (present value, $12,000), these tapestries have always been

the subject of great admiration, and numerous copies may be found in Berlin,

Loreto, Dresden, Paris, and other places. Raphael made cartoons for ten of the

Galleria tapestries; his pupils Penni and Perin del Vaga executed twelve others in

accordance with smaller sketches of the master; five are works of more recent

date. The first series formerly adorned the unpainted lower portion of the walls of

the Sistine Chapel; the second series were intended for the Consistorial Hall.

Seven of the original cartoons of Raphael were purchased in France by Charles I

of England, and they may now be seen in the South Kensington Museum. During

the sack of Rome in 1527 the tapestries were stolen, but Julius III succeeded in

having them restored. When Rome was occupied by the French in 1798, they

were again seized and bartered to a Genoese Jew, from whom Pius VII acquired

them in 1808. This rough handling damaged the tapestries, weakening and

blurring the colours, but they are now carefully preserved. (Consult Farabulini,

"L'arte degli Arazzi e la nuova Galleria dei Gobelins at Vaticano", Rome, 1884.)

I. Studio del Musaico

The Vatican possesses an extensive studio for mosaic painting. The number of

different coloured glass-pastes used exceeds 11,000. Almost all the altars in St.

Peter's furnish evidence of the perfection to which this art has been carried in the

imitation of renowned paintings. In the studio, which is at once an exhibition and

salesroom for the mosaics manufactured, the visitor can see how the various

artists work. Even smaller works demand the patient labour of many years. The

pope is wont to choose a specially beautiful example of mosaic work as a

present for royalty.

At the conclusion of this section it may be said that there is a vast number of

other works of art distributed here and there throughout the Vatican Palace, but

not accessible to the general public. To these belong the paintings of the

Zuccari in the Torre dei Quattro Venti, the Bathroom of Cardinal Bibiena, the

chiaroscuri in a hall on the second floor, etc.

VIII. THE PALACE AS A SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTE

This topic -- with an emphasis on the Vatican Archives and the Vatican Library --

will be treated in a separate article.

IX. THE STATE HALLS OF THE VATICAN

State halls for the celebration of various solemnities in the Vatican Palace came

into existence gradually as their need became apparent; they reflect in their

general decoration the taste prevailing at the periods of their construction.

Although not so numerous as those in many royal palaces, the halls of the

Vatican stand first in historical importance. Great events of interest for both

profane and ecclesiastical history have taken place within them during the past

centuries. As regards situation, there are two groups of rooms -- the first in the

immediate vicinity of the Sistine Chapel and the second before and in the papal

suite. The former group includes the Sala Regia, Sala Ducale, and Sala dei

Paramenti; in the second are the Sala Clementina, Sala Concistoriale, Sala degli

Arazzi, and Sala dei Trono.

A. The Sala Regia

Although not intended as such, this broad room is really an antechamber to the

Sistine Chapel, reached by the Scala Regia. To the left of the entrance formerly

stood the papal throne, which is now at the opposite side before the door leading

to the Cappella Paolina. The hall was begun under Paul III by Antonio da

Sangallo the Younger and was completed in 1573. The elegant barrelvault is

provided with the highly graceful and very impressive plaster decorations of Pierin

del Vaga. The stucco ornaments over the doors are by Daniele da Volterra. The

longitudinal walls are broken on the one side by two, and on the other by three,

large doors, between which Giorgio Vasari and Taddeo Zuccaro have introduced

very powerful frescoes, whose effect is more than ornamental. They depict

momentous turning-points in the life of the Church, among others the return of

Gregory XI from Avignon to Rome, the battle of Lepanto, the raising of the ban

from Henry IV, and the reconciliation of Alexander III with Frederick Barbarossa.

This hall served originally for the reception of princes and royal ambassadors.

To-day the consistories are held in it, and an occasional musical recital in the

presence of the pope; during a conclave it is a favourite promenade for the

cardinals.

B. The Sala Ducale

The Sala Ducale lies between the Sala Regia and the Loggie of Giovanni da

Udine. Formerly there were here two separate halls, which were converted into

one by Bernini by the removal of the separating wall (the position of which is still

clearly perceptible). The decorative paintings, which are of a purely ornamental

nature, are by Raffaellino da Reggio, Sabbatini, and Matthæus Brill. In this

impressive hall were formerly held the public consistories for the reception of

ruling princes. It now serves occasionally for the reception of pilgrims, the

consecration of bishops, when (as rarely happens) this is undertaken by the

pope, or is used for the accommodation of specified divisions of the papal

household, when the pope holds a consistory in the Sala Regia, proceeds to the

Sistine Chapel, or sets out with great solemnity for St. Peter's.

C. The Sala dei Paramenti

The Sala dei Paramenti lies a little to the left of the Sala Ducale, and adjoins

immediately the Loggie of Giovanni da Udine. It receives its name from the fact

that the pope assumes the pontifical vestments in one room of this suite before

attending Divine service in the Cappella Sistina. The Sacred College assembles

in another room to accompany the pope. Both rooms, which are not accessible

to the public, are decorated with tapestries of beautiful colour, the walls are

overarched with red damask, and the ceiling richly gilt. Here the members of the

papal court assemble for breakfast after receiving their Easter Communion from

the pope.

D. The Sala Clementina

The Sala Clementina is a gigantic hall, two stories high, situated on the second

floor, at the entrance to the papal apartments, and reached by the Scala Nobile.

At the rear of this hall a division of the Swiss Guard is posted. The doors to the

right lead to the apartments of the pope, those on the left to the Loggie, and

those in the rear immediately to the Consistorial Hall. The magnificent marble

wainscoting is over six feet; above it rise bold ornamental frescoes of splendid

perspective, extending along the rounded ceiling. From the middle of the ceiling

hangs a colossal chandelier, whose green patina combines wonderfully with the

whole harmony of colours. Frequent repetitions of the coat of arms of Clement

VIII, the builder of the hall, have been arranged by the artist with excellent taste.

This great hall serves to-day as a waiting-room, as a vesting-room in the case of

great receptions in the Consistorial Hall, and on rare occasions for the reception

of pilgrimages or large deputations.

E. The Sala Concistoriale

The long but rather narrow Consistorial Hall lies behind the Sala Clementina, and

behind the Antecamera bassa to the right of that Sala. Erected by Clement XIII,

it is employed for secret consistories, for official sessions under the presidency

of the pope (postulations and the like), as well as for solemn receptions. The

poor light afforded by the northern exposure of the room is still further reduced by

dark red hangings on the walls. Some large oil paintings, representing religious

subjects give life to the walls, and the coffered ceiling is richly gilt. Between the

ceiling and the oil paintings are, besides rich ornamental painting, a number of

landscape frescoes of delicate tone. At the rear of the hall stands a more

elaborate than beautiful throne, which dates from the Vatican Exhibition; simple,

but monumental, wooden stalls extend along the walls.

F. The Sala degli Arazzi

The Sala degli Arazzi receives its name from the vast framed Flemish tapestries

which decorate every wall. As these magnificent pieces hang very low, the visitor

can closely examine the fineness of the workmanship. Above the tapestries have

been painted, since the time of Paul V, landscape frescoes, which alternate with

the arms of this pope. A beautifully carved cornice supports the richly gilt

coffered ceiling, which looks down on a mosaic marble floor. Curtains of white

silk, with outside curtains of ungathered green silk, exclude too glaring a light.

Perfect taste and harmony of colour exist throughout this immense hall.

G. The Sala del Trono

Reference has been already made to the Throne Room. It may be added that to

the right and left of the throne on two great marble tables stand two very valuable

ancient clocks. Between the two windows, exactly opposite the throne, is an ivory

crucifix of extraordinary dimensions and artistic value.

X. THE STATE STAIRCASES OF THE VATICAN

There are three state staircases in the Vatican. The first and best-known is the

Scala Regia, which leads up to the Sala Regia. It was built under Alexander VII

by Bernini, who, by the skilful arrangement of the columns supporting the

curves, has entirely concealed the narrowing of the staircase towards the top.

The second staircase, erected by Pius IX, leads from the Portone di Bronzo, the

chief entrance to the Vatican, directly up to the Cortile di San Damaso.

Constructed of granite steps several yards wide, the staircase has on the outer

side a marble balustrade of corresponding bulk; the base is of Breccia marble,

and above it as far as the ceiling extends artificial marble. A large painted

window adorns the side looking towards the Piazza S. Pietro. Half-way up is the

apartment of the sub-prefect of the Apostolic Palaces, while above, on the same

floor as the Cortile di San Damaso, is the apartment occupied by the maestro di

camera. This staircase is called after the name of its builder, Scala Pia. The

third state staircase is the Scala Nobile, which leads from the Cortile di San

Damaso to the third story, to the suite of the secretary of state, and runs past

the papal apartments to the private suite of the pope. Light is admitted on the

ground floor by the painted windows renovated by the Prince Regent of Bavaria

after the powder explosion of 1882, and on the second floor by those donated by

the Collegium Germanicum at the same period. The steps are of white marble;

yellow artificial marble covers the walls, while the base is of pure marble. Rich

plaster decorations cover the barrel-vault. The whole well of the staircase is

simple, but of rare impressiveness and pleasing colour.

XI. THE ADMINISTRATIVE BOARDS OF THE VATICAN

The supreme board of administration within the palace is the Prefettura dei Sacri

Palazzi Apostolici, at the head of which stands as prefect the secretary of state.

He is assisted by the sub-prefect, who, as executive and supervising official,

possesses extensive authority. All artistic and scientific undertakings are

subject in so far as their economic aspect is concerned, to the decision of the

prefect. The departments of building, furnishing, administration of the magazine,

household management, fire brigade, accountancy, the stables, printing works,

gardening, and some other divisions are administered, under the supervision of

the prefect, by more or less independent boards, whose directors -- ee.g. the

foriere maggiore and the cavallerizzo maggiore -- in some cases hold a high rank

at Court (cf. Die kathol. Kirche unserer Zeit, I, pp. 286-88). Both the household

and magazine authorities have so completed their tasks since 1903 that it is no

longer necessary to make special plans for the fitting of rooms etc. on the

occasion of great solemnities such as conclaves. Pius X has everything

arranged in a permanent fashion and preserved in the store-rooms, and in this

manner has introduced considerable savings. The department of building, which

under Leo XIII was rather neglected, is now busy with perfecting the architectural

condition of the palace. The sub-prefect is restoring to their former condition a

large number of magnificent halls, which during the course of the last century

were subdivided vertically and horizontally to make smaller rooms. In the

execution of these works some important discoveries have been made. Very

important and thorough repairs were made throughout the palace. The floor of the

Galleria Lapidaria was laid with bricks, the windows closed very badly, and the

general condition of this magnificent corridor left very much to be desired.

Repairs being thus urgently needed, a mere rectification of the damages would

not be sufficient. Moreover such a proceeding would be contrary to the traditions

of the Curia, which executes in monumental fashion whatever it undertakes.

When the floor, windows, arches, and masonry were all overhauled in the

Appartamento Borgia, the Collections of ancient pagan carvings, which were

exhibited along the walls under the inscriptions, received an unusual increase.

The reduction of the stud was begun under Leo XIII and completed under Pius

X, so that the pope now possesses comparatively few horses. The extremely

strict discipline which Pius X has introduced into all branches of the Vatican

administration, has met with splendid success.

XII. THE JURIDICAL AND HYGIENIC BOARDS OF THE VATICAN

Experience has proved it necessary that the Curia should maintain a tribunal

before which all legal disputes relating in any way to the Vatican administration

might be decided. The Italian courts are in such cases powerless and

inefficacious, because their jurisdiction ceases at the palace gates. As there

must ever be recriminations wherever there are numerous relations with the

commercial world, where there are crowds of clerks and great circulation of

money, two "Commissioni Prelatizie per decretare intorno alle controversie e

contestazioni con le amministrazioni palatine" were created by Decree of 20

February 1882, to decide all claims made against the Curial administration. The

title possesses a juristic interest: the official bodies are called commissioni, not

tribunali; decretare, and not giudicare or decidere, is used; and the processes

are termed controversie and contestazioni. Although the Decree manifestly

avoids giving the name of court of justice to the new institution, it is such de

facto. The two commissions then created are each composed of three prelates,

who have the decision of processes both in first and also in second instance.

The court of third instance is formed by the union of the other two under the

presidency of the general auditor of the Apostolic Chamber. All the prelates have

a legal training, and in each of the first two courts are a president and two

colleagues. Each court has a prelate as petitioner and a secretary. It is a notable

feature that, for the execution of all judgments which are legally given against the

Vatican administration, nothing is provided.

The procedure of these courts is as follows: The process is begun by written

documents placed in the hands of the president. The defendant lodges a written

answer within a certain interval, after which further pleas and counterpleas may

continue. On the conclusion of the written explanations or after the expiration of a

certain interval, during which no further counterpleas are forthcoming, the

decision is given and published by exhibition in the Secretariate. The interval for

appeal is six months, dating from the day of the publication of judgment. These

courts employ every means to establish the facts as they actually are: the

examination of witnesses, the administration of oaths, decisive or supplementary

oaths, the examination of experts, etc. The costs of court are regulated on the

basis of the provisions of the Papal States. The tribunal of the prefecture, of

which the competence cannot be exactly established, has an inquisitor and a

secretary. Before this court are heard criminal charges.

The sanitary service and the hygienic department were reorganized on 14

November, 1893. In accordance with modern requirements, exhaustive measures

were taken in all matters connected with these departments. In particular the

water service was thoroughly renovated. The sanitary corps is under the direction

of the physician in ordinary to the pope, under whom also stand five other

physicians and some assistants. Two of the physicians are appointed for day

duty, and two for night; the fifth attends the Swiss Guards. The assistants

represent the physicians, when these are unable to attend, but on all solemn

occasions, when an unusually great number of persons assemble, they must

(like the physicians) be always in attendance. The sanitary service and hygienic

department are subordinate to the Prefecture of the Apostolic Palaces. The

Vatican dispensary, which was formerly in the Cortile di San Damaso, was

recently transferred to the quarters of the Swiss Guards, and lies at the door of

the Torrione di Nicolò V which leads to the city. Consequently it is easily

accessible to the inhabitants of the Borgo, who avail themselves very freely of it.

It is entrusted to three Brothers of Mercy, and delivers all medicines at the rates

appointed by the urban council of Rome in favour of the poor. A list hanging up

in the dispensary shows to what residents and servants of the palace medicines

are to be given gratis.

XIII. THE POLICING OF THE VATICAN

There is within the Vatican a well-organized service of police and guards. Military

and police bodies protect persons and property, and the fire department prevents

damage from fire. The special military guardians of the palace are the Swiss

Guards; entrusted with the specifically police duties are the gendarmes. The

Palatine Guards are rather a guard of honour, and the Noble Guard a mounted

bodyguard with very limited service. The fire brigade is formed by the Guardie del